| Topic : Construction Project Management |
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Construction Planning & Management |
Project Management ++ |
Global Project Management |
7 more ...
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Activity:
1371 views;
last activity : 04 30 2011 04:43:00 +0000
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Lack of visualisation
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Lack of Practical knowledge
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Blindly relying on Vendor Quotes for Estimates...!!!
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Common ERROR in BOQ
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Common errors in the construction cost estimate.
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Wrong measurements
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Taking Shortcuts
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Common errors in estimation
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Methods Engineering and Manhours estimation
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Improper Scheduling
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ANALYSIS
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Rigidity in estimating.
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Method of Measurement
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requirement of systemization
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Common errors in cost estimation
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Lack of proper prior planning of drawings and lack of escaltion of market price
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Reduce time and cost in construction
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Lack of Drawing study experince
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Improper Building Materials
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Accuracy in Financial aspect of calculation
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Failure of Project Head & Head Office
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Lack of Practical knowledge
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think about the indirect costs...
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Common errors in construction cost estimation
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Data Collection
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Data Collection
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ashok
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Use of products in finishing of building which reduces construction time.
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Bill of Quantities
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Speed to complete the work: chance for more errors
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errors occured in cost estimation....
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Lack of communication & co-ordination
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Lack of communication & co-ordination
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Bad work manship
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Not identifying the direct costs
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Avoiding direct cost anlysis
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Comprehensive knowledge, farsightedness & ability to plan.
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Check for Units
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Common errors in construction cost estimation
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Improper Bill of Quanties and Timelines
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Lack of Practical knowledge
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Lack of well defined cost tracking items during execution
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basically iknow only one error &this is realy diffilct 2 overcome this error this is sourcing of raw materials
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Approximation of the measurements and rates
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visualization
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Compuuter Skill and Precision
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Modicum of descipline
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allotment of optimum time
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Before estimation site investigation is essential and every detail should be taken care off to prepare the BOQ wherever the site
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calculation for Overheads
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ERRORS IN COSTING / ESTIMATION
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Refresh mind in between the work
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systemization of process
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support
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hands on knowledge of the project
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lack of practical knowledge
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Right,
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THEORITICAL ERROR
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Lack of Visualization, Communication and Analysis
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Lack of Drawing study experince
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Sales cost along with project cost
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common mistake in estimation
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Reading plans need 3D visualisation .Lack of it leads to wrong measurements. |
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without visualisation no costestimate can be prepared.But without practical knowledge no estimate will accurate.A pile depth can be had from the report, but the risks of sliding and penetration can be calculated by practical knowledge only.An estimate for building construction may be prepared by visualising the details shown.But with practical knowledge only the idle hrs for resouces or seasonal impacts or any other related risks can be identified for costing the budget
Lack of visualization of the various elements required for sucessful completion of project is the main reason for errors in estimates. Besides this proper knowledge of the site conditions w.r.t. the final drawings are also to be kept in mind.
By summing up the opinions expressed by every one discussed in this debate, one can find solutions for preparation of an estimate with enhanced accuracy level.
The PMI is bringing out with Global Standard for Preparation of Cost Estimation very soon. The draft is in circulation. I hope it will show a way how an estimate should be prepared and the factors to be considered. Different types of estimates for at different stages of the projects.
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Hi Freinds, Only theoritical knowledge is not sufficiant for cost estimation. Many estimaters do the estimates by theroticaly because they have never gone to site for execution. So they do not come to know exactly what are the actual consumption of material & how much labour used. I think that practical knowledge is must for cost estimation. |
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a practical knowledge is very important for error free cost estimation.because it is called humane error
without practical knowledge like blindly driving
If the person who does the calculations has got some practical experience, this will defenetly help him to estimate more accurately.
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Most of the cost estimates in a project go wrong because we totally rely on vendor quotes and three quotation system instead of doing a detailed Item Rate Analysis for indivudal items of work. By relying on a vendors estimate blindly, the following risk components are on our head :
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Most of the mistakes come due to blind acceptance of numbers given by vendors. Interpreting with different modes can give an exact value. Vendors always rise their rates to enhance negotiation
Yes Nitin i am with you in this regard.
we should go for vendor quotes for the items which are not in vogue i mean new Items or we call them Non shcedule or market rate items. For these items we can have vendor's quotes but these quotes shall be based on some specification say manufacurere's specification and proper analysus shall be done for these items also and only then the cost shall be worked out. If we simply go by quote we will not be knowing actual cost and we can not compare cost quoted by the bidders. It is just that we are ignorant of the item. For this we have to do some market survey about rate and discussions with manufacturer for its specification. We i suggest we share use of new items there avaiabilty and there suitabilty of use.
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Hello to all Here are some common error in preparing BOQ: 1.Lack of knowledge of lacally available building material like sand. metal, Bricks etc.: Most of the estimaters are not considered actual cost of material which is available locally or near to site. Actually they depend on venders quotes (Who r based from the estimaters town) bcos they not conduct actual servey for the quality, quantity, availability and rates. 2. Lack of pratical knowledge: Most of the estimaters prepare BOQ by theoritically in his office without considering actual problems that may occure at site bcos they hav never gone to site. Also they not considered actual consumption of raw material and men power. 3. Error in calculation/Analysis: It is the most common error in BOQ. to solve this error estimater should use Cost Estimating Software. 4.Non considering of complete set of Final drawings: Most of the estimater prepared BOQ on the basis of Architectural & stractural drawings. But they not considered proper drawings in case of services like Approach Road, Internal Roads, Drainage System, Water Supply System, Electrification (HT & LT both), Street Light, Land Scapping etc. Also they not considered Site Survey Plan (Contoor). Site Topography play major role in Price escalation so, it is necessary to considered it in all calculations. 5. Other common errors are: a. Lack of knowledge about Liasoning & Taxes. b. Error in measurement: Deduction or Addition to be made in calculation. c. Incorrect interpretation of Drawings. d. Non considering the project completion time. e. Pressure on time bound completion. f. Lack of coordination among Architect, Client & estimater. and many more.............. |
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Mistake done in estimation due to common error in calculation. Mistake in conversion.
in hilly areas most of the estimator never visit the site they usually on topographical picture estimate the quantity of earth work, how ever during execution of work, hard rocks and ordinary rock came accross and due to huge variation in rock excavation total variation of cost takes place..so be aware....what there inside the earth after excavation
One of reason is frequent change in specification.
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Hi in my view common errors are Not understanding what is involved to complete an item of work. Starting with an amount of money and making the project cost fit it. Assigning resources at more than 80 percent utilisation. Failing to build in contingency. Failing to adjust the estimate in accordance with changes in scope. Dividing tasks between more than one resource. Providing estimates under pressure in project meetings. Giving single-data-point estimates rather than range estimates.
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Hello to all,
my comment is based on mechanical engineering ...construction cost ,,, basically the person who is doing costing must be aware of the fact that is happening out of his office. sitting in front of pc & putting up the figure will not help out. when you are estimating one should prepare the punchlist of the require information which is missing from the enquiry submitted by the client secondly the costing sheet should be submitted to the department head for eg in production dept & qc department for manhrs calaculation,then in purchase department for confirming the raw material cost & dispatch cost, after the final approval by each departmental head the quotation should be further process for submission to the client.In this i will say to each one each department should work with estimation department for avoiding the rare miss in the enquiry ,as we should work as a team to acheive our goal If each department will put there contribution in estimation then it will be a grand success. I feel the person with 10 yrs of experience in estimation should have minimum 6yrs of shop floor or practical experience. I will give an example of IHI japan .they had given an drawing for estimation which states that the total tonnage of the project was 1000 tones but apart from the heavy structure the the attachment on the structure was very light weight & during estimation the the manhrs estmated were 200/ton -- but till the completion of the project the manhrs were reached upto..600 manhrs /ton..the maximum manhrs were waisted in welding & removing the distortion in the weldedsection..So one should very carefull & take advice from production department for all estimation when they are dealing with deferent type of enquiry.
thanks for reading
sidhesh
Hello to all,
my comment is based on mechanical engineering ...construction cost ,,, basically the person who is doing costing must be aware of the fact that is happening out of his office. sitting in front of pc & putting up the figure will not help out. when you are estimating one should prepare the punchlist of the require information which is missing from the enquiry submitted by the client secondly the costing sheet should be submitted to the department head for eg in production dept & qc department for manhrs calaculation,then in purchase department for confirming the raw material cost & dispatch cost, after the final approval by each departmental head the quotation should be further process for submission to the client.In this i will say to each one each department should work with estimation department for avoiding the rare miss in the enquiry ,as we should work as a team to acheive our goal If each department will put there contribution in estimation then it will be a grand success. I feel the person with 10 yrs of experience in estimation should have minimum 6yrs of shop floor or practical experience. I will give an example of IHI japan .they had given an drawing for estimation which states that the total tonnage of the project was 1000 tones but apart from the heavy structure the the attachment on the structure was very light weight & during estimation the the manhrs estmated were 200/ton -- but till the completion of the project the manhrs were reached upto..600 manhrs /ton..the maximum manhrs were waisted in welding & removing the distortion in the weldedsection..So one should very carefull & take advice from production department for all estimation when they are dealing with deferent type of enquiry.
thanks for reading
sidhesh
Here are some of the common errors that can occur when it comes to construction cost estimating.
Problems with Your Adding and Subtracting
Probably one of the most common construction cost estimating errors that occurs is a problem with the arithmetic. You may add, subtract, or multiply wrong, coming up with the wrong numbers. This can be a real problem if you are trying to do all the math yourself. Use the modern equipment available and double check to make sure you get the math right for your estimates.
The Wrong Measurements
The wrong measurements can also be a problem that causes errors when you are making a construction cost estimate. Whether you get the wrong measurements from plans or you use the wrong unit of measurement, this can definitely cause a big difference in the estimates. Make sure you get the right measurements and get the right unit of measurement being used as well.
Problems with Labor Cost Estimates
Problems with labor cost estimates can cause errors when it comes to construction cost estimating as well. All you have to do is calculate in too much or too money for the labor costs. Make sure that you know the real cost of labor at the current time that you are coming up with the estimate. This way you don't make this common error yourself.
Never Visiting the Site
Never actually visiting the construction site can also be a huge error that can lead to problems with the construction cost estimating. Taking time to visit the site is going to be important when you are estimating the cost of the project. You'll have to determine whether current structures must be removed, whether you'll have to protect bordering properties, and more. If you don't visit the site yourself, you can't get the big picture in order to come up with an accurate measurement.
Using Software to Avoid Errors
One of the best ways that you can avoid errors in construction cost estimating is to make sure that you use good software. The right estimating software can change the way you do business. Not only will it make your job easier, but it will help you make sure that you come up with an accurate estimate every time.
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From my experiences I have seen that errors in measurements and dimensions taken from plans, drawings, and
specifications result in corresponding mistakes in the cost of
construction items based on those measurements.
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hai,
how can we calculate the material requirement for concreting and plastering?
are these methods vary w.r.t. their proportions?
In my view following points are very important while estimating:
1.Limitation in Understanding /knowledge
2. Errors in calculations.
3. Errors in analysing.
Hussain in your case,
It depends on the mix ratio.If given the quantity for c.m 1:5
Area to be plastered=96.77sq.m(300 sq ft)
thickness of coat=12mm
volume of mortar required=96.77*.012=1.161m3
sand required for 1.161m3=1.161m3
cement required=(weight of cement in 1m3/mix ratio)*total volume
= (1440/5)*1.161 = 335kgs
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Anjali a very common error is taking short cuts, we generally take shortcuts when making an estimate which can be risky. Often there is a temptation to take shortcuts when under pressure because of time-limit in which to complete the cost estimate or because of a heavy backlog of work. Shortcuts take the form of guess estimating, using square feet or cubic foot costs in place of details, and using lump sum figures picked out of the air, all of which have inherent risks...
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It hase been a practice that it is always taken while preparing Estimates that YEH TO SUB CHALTA HAI word is offenly used ,thus leads to a poor estimation ,results in hold up of project iat later stages.
yes sir very true....we are in a hurry to complete the cost estimate work & do such mistakes.
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Civil construction involves construction of basic structures and sservices equired for making these structures functional. What i feel that we can estimate accurately cost of structure based on drawing(Architectural) and may not do so acuurately in case of services. To estimate cost of these items we require field data. This field can be complied in site sirvey plan. If estimation for services is done by assuming a flat ground where on ground u may require earthcutting or filling which can be assesed only afyter a accurate site survey plan. We must also know availabilty of basic servies of water supply elctricty and approach. Depending upon size of project design of services needs to done i.e fpr water supply, sewer services and roads. Similarly provision for landscaping and horticulture needs to done. |
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Sir,
It is absolute and necessary to study the field data. Which is in generally being ignored particulary the soil report may effect the foundation cost. And also depends on the topography of the site the services cost will be effected.(I am N.S.Rao happy to see u on this website. I had worked under u at Dimapur,Nagaland from 1991 to 1995 under your division)
nsrao_cpwd@yahoo.com
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Cost focus is always on Materials cost. A major component of cost goes towards method of construction and manhours utilised. These need to be defined clearly in the beginning itself for a realistic estimation of cost. This is where 3D and 4D simulations can be used for an accurate estimation of cost. I am not sure whether this method is used in India but i understand it is quite common in US and Europe. I also feel quantity surveying should be made a seperate specialisation in Academics and there should be a qualifying examination for producing certified quantity surveyors. |
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Improper Scheduling- of manpower, material and plant machinary |
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WITHOUT PROPER planing ,pogramming,improper ordering of material required.
WITHOUT PROPER planing ,pogramming,improper ordering of material required.
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1.MISTAKES IN DATA AND RATE ANALYSIS 2.MISTAKES IN TAKING MEASUREMENTS ESPECIALLY IN EARTHWORK EXCAVATION,BAR BENDING SCHEDULE,FILLING ETC. 3.NON FOLLOW UP OF IS CODES IN TAKING OFF MEASUREMENTS 4.CONVERSION OF UNITS WITH REFERENCE TO DRAWINGS |
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ANALSYS basically means the actual involvement of material, labour ,wastage,taxes ,profit,overhead expenses such as liaosoning expenses.
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Most of the estimates are in government sector,where they are prepared based on SR's, which do not comprehensively take into consideration rapidly changing market scenario. Probably the estmates should have better projecting techniques. |
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Yes, Government spent more then 36,000 Crs extra in infrastructure projects because of rigidity in estimation (
Yes, Government spent more then 36,000 Crs extra in infrastructure projects because of rigidity in estimation (
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The method of measurement varies from one project to another. For instance, the method of measurement of concreting works in a project may include formork also, whereas another project envisage concrete and formwork as different items. So we need to clearly understand the method of measurement envisaged in the project to avoid errors in estimation. |
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Apart from the 5 ideas casuing error, establishment of a proper system, where manual error is reduced considerably, shall be a powerful tool in proper estimation. System shall include from the very first step of recognition of job and shall be upto the final result including measurement methodes, entry system, calculation process, theories involved in measurement and calculations and presentatio of result and role and responsibility of each individual of team. System shall not be man oriented rather node oriented where chances of humen dependancy reduces tremandously. |
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Incorrect interpretation of contract conditions especially special conditions reagarding the mode of measurements and BOQ can leade to horrendous errors. Incorrect interprepation of the drawings very often structural drawings results more incorrect measurements. Most of the times while arriving at market analysis of an items like concrete and masonry items the upto date rates of material,Labour,seignorage & taxes to be considered.Which other wise may results wrong rates in pre bid analysis of rates. Often omissions are possible in considering the variation in rates involving the difficuties in conveying the materials for the items operated at heights and remote areas. |
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The common errors which i found leads to errors in arriving the exact cost of the project is mainly (1) Due to non availability of proper prior planning (2) Disproportionate proposals of prject without seeing the available budget (3) Due to non availability of Architectural/Structural Drawings. (4) Lack of proficiency of in assessing the escalation of material cost (5) Considering the project completion times which adds to additional cost of men and material. (6) After comletion fo the estimate there should be cross checking by expertise consultants in the respective field. N.S.Rao Asst Engineer,CPWD |
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I observed common error in reading Drawing at tenderstage and during construction . It happens due to improper attention given by engineers . This lead to rework which increases construction cost and time priod for construction . Selection of proper and able engineers , cross examination of their working can help to minumise such errors which occour due to not reading of detail of drawing properly |
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optimum time is to be given for all the events and ativities to minimize errors in all the stages of constrution, crushing of time frame will cause fishy things ie errors then mistakes then blunders
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If we read the drawing properly with practical experince the chance of error is nill.
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Dear Mr. Rajiv ji your answer seems to be the best among all, but difference between estimate and actual cost will never be nill. It may be negligible if a construction manager is also wise and expert in the field in addition to your views.
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A common error on building materials and supplies which you buy for site should be correctly
described as to kind, quality, size, and dimensions. Also confirm that
they are priced competitively or else it will add to further cost.
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Due to lack in understanding proper Cpecification ,wrong orders for puchase of material is floated
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Even after calculating all quantities accurately like materials, labour, transportation, escalation etc., The other costs like adminstration & other expenses are accounted under one head like overhead expenses & charged between 10-15%. I find this very inaccurate. The administrative expenses should be calculated based on the set up. Then the machinery costs should be taken into consideration like for ordering, runnning, idling, maintainance, shifting, depriciation, insurance, this should be calculated for atleast for the duration of the project. This will according to me will surely exceed the range of 10-15%. |
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If A Project delays due to Manpower .It is Failure of Project Manager.If It Delays Due to budget, rate & design then it is failure of Project Head or Head Office & shows insufficient knowledge & Experience . |
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Site survey and detailed BoQ preparation is essential but experience in subject field much more important to judgment of correct rate.
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"indirect" costs can "directly" affects the estimation made...keep in mind the aspects of indirect costs... |
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In my view one of the most critical error happend during cost estimation is tax part. i.e calcuilation of Work Contract Tax/ Service Tax & Vat , most ofetnly we do not conseder this thing while estimate. More over Contingencies must be taken in to consedaration. |
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Actual expenses during estimation is not cosiderd such as all taxes,actual labour charges as per market rates physically available.
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Unit rate costing, once you have acquired knowledge, working out all the resource involved undr each item, under 1st line principle & LMPO finaly applying total qty of the project with applied risk analysis This normally I apply in projects, success rate good |
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Unit rate costing, once you have acquired knowledge, working out all the resource involved undr each item, under 1st line principle & LMPO finaly applying total qty of the project with applied risk analysis This normally I apply in projects, success rate good |
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we do not count rate escallation properly or earth work & plinth work not linked with actual levels so the differ never come in front of us hence the cost error makes us fool |
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Well i would like to know ideas for using items in finishing of resdential units which cut down construction time if compared with other items. |
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We should get Bill of Quantities with poper estimation, calculating the time of projects completion. Main reason for cost escalation is because of deviation and deviation is because in proper bill of quantities. |
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When somebody want to complete the work in speed one may mistake in tyoing the word or figure this will cost us in time and money in long run. |
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IMPROPER PROGRAMMING
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common errors in cost estimation are generally... misunderstanding of drawings, detailing shown in drawings, lack of understanding, lack of experience in construction works, lack of knowledge about IS codes or mode of measurments for deduction or additions to be made in calculation, lack of information about unit prices of materials, labour and equipments, and may be also the lack of communication between clients, contractor or architects or consultants.. before preparing the final cost estimation, it is to be very important to prepare the parametric cost estimation of the same project to get the approximate information of cost of project. parametric cost estimates are plays important role in to get the final cost estimation or budget.
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in all level. thats it |
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in all level. thats it
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In many cost analysis, estimators prefer to increase the indirect costs in order to save rogorious exercise & time. More the analysis better the identification of direct cost & mare accurate the costing. |
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In many cost analysis, estimators avoid direct cost analysis per heads. This increases indirect cost & proper estimation could not be done. This may save rigourious exercise & time but accuracy of estimation cannot be relied. More anlysis of direct costs, better would be estimation & more accurate would be the costing. |
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You are mentally IMAGING & BUILDING the building when you prepare your cost and estimate. It does not mean that visualization alone will minimize the errors. You may be good at visualizing the components, but if ignorant about the material, labour and the other factors, wrong estimate would be the result. There are chances of the estimate going wrong for many other reasons. A person who is good in planning and sequencing, combined with subject knowledge and practical exposure would perform best in estimate, I feel. Records on previous errors and corrective measures will help yield better results. |
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Do not get confused with the Units you are working in. |
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Knowledge limitaition -
Pressure of time bound completion
Fund Limitations
Lack of cordination between planner and estimator
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Bill of Quantities should be prepared in such a way that they should not be deviated. Drawings should be freezed and should meet the timelines. |
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Hi Freinds, Only theoritical knowledge is not sufficiant for cost estimation. Many estimaters do the estimates by theroticaly because they have never gone to site for execution. So they do not come to know exactly what are the actual consumption of material & how much labour used. I think that practical knowledge is must for cost estimation. |
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Very often tender/Bid items and items of execution of project are not in tandem from ocnstruction project goals. Items where tender price has been frozen does not have direct ir indirect cost linkages. as a result WHY and HOW part of cost analysis missing
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basically iknow only one error &this is realy diffilct 2 overcome this error this is sourcing of raw materials
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it is really difficult to believe that your sourcing is the minimal one |
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Sometimes rounding off the measurements and rates make a big difference in total estimation. |
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The basic need for estimation is the proper visualization of the project. The main errors arises due to this, since the person making the estimation over looks many things and make estimation on major things |
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while preparing the estimates it is taken very lightly to go in to the roots of the project to find out the actual work is to been executed and the actual materiasl (such as an ordernary SPLIT PIN )is ommeted which delays the whole project if not VISUALIZED properly
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Above all points, in final stage of estimation we use computer for estimation and tendering. Data linking and formula needs Advanced Level Computer skill and perfection. |
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Estimates must be prepared after extensive market survey and collecting quotes.The trend in the prices must be absorbed in the estimates. |
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Time factor is imp for reducing errors, otherwise consequense are not errors but errors>mistakes>blunders |
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Before estimation site investigation is essential and every detail should be taken care off to prepare the BOQ wherever the site
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location is.
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Calculation of Quantity is easy and controlable.But you can not calculate for overheads because it differ organisation to organisation and place to place |
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ERRORS IN COSTING / ESTIMATION
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I agree with hin
During the palnning the person who is the final decision making talks of many many innovative things and when it comes to budgeting and cost he wants either please the bosses or reduce the cost leading to confusion and cheos in the original estimate and budgeting.
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we have to think about the functioning of our brain. The neurones controls the functions while we estimating something with logics and numbers. After continuous work neurones get tired and the efficiency they possessed lost and there may be errors occurred.So while estimating some big constructions that require more wearisome work , we may have to take rest for 1 or 2 minutes by stopping the work and engage some other things and after such time come back to the work again then the brain refreshed with some new energy and u can involve in the work with more correctness and exuberance. |
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A system need be created, which should be node (job) oriented in place of personale oriented which shall effectively reduce chances of all sorts of humen error. |
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The common causes for the wrong estimation are mainly Lack of visualization with respect to the drawings designs or late submission of some particular drawings secondly due to change in the specifications during the course of construction And also due to the wrong measurements enhancement in the market and labor rates due to unexpected site conditions causing delays increase the cost all these factor guide the construction cost while the estimation done on the preliminary stage proves to be wrong if the cost of construction varies with respect to the estimated cost due to these reasons
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Estimation has to be primarily carried by person who has been involved with the project at a grassroot level. Construction projects come up with lot of un knowns. Field engineers and project managers who have got their hands dirty know what is involved to get the work done. Trying to estimate without such expertise will lead to unforgivable blunders .
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common erors in construction and cost are because of practical knowledge because u cannot define the events properly
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If the viulisation of Drawings are not done properly there is alwayse error in estmation |
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Calculating and preparing estimates with theoritical knowledge according to the drawing is not sufficient for cost estimation. Many people prepare the estimate according to the drawing in the office with out considering the actual practical problems that may occur at site. The major consideration is that they don't consider the wastage. In calculating of earth work many estimators don't consider the compresion of earth which is also a major varition in the cost estimate. They dont concider variation of the cost of material according to the market rate. Improper calculation of material & labour (They prepare estimate according to the drawing). They don't consider the extra work dun at site. The changes in drawing make lot of wasteges on the site which is not consider. |
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Improper communication to all impacted team/individual and lack of complete analysis leads to wrong cost estimation.
One requires complete visualization of the project. Identifying all the impacted area/persons help to accumulate the complete cost.
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If we read the drawing properly with practical experince the chance of error is nil |
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Sales cost (Time) along with project construction cost is impacting the completion of project. |
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common mistak in estimate is manual calculation ,proper site selection and condition of site visit by engineer not prepared technical report and estimation as per drg.prepared .constr. start problem faced by site team ,engineers.Rate analysis done as per site cond.than prepare est. |
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Project Planning Engineers have a very "Hyped" Important role on Paper roles and responsiblities... |
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Who has more chances of being succesfull in a Project Manager's Role in Construction Projects...??? |
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Almost every Indian company -- big or small -- that has some expertise in construction finds itself flooded with orders that are nearly three to four times its annual sales. The size and pace of orders could threaten the development of the... |
Most often, workers are negligent in their work and because of their not being coucious, accidents occur. Hence they become victim of their carelessness at construction site. |
Paper plays a very important role in construction. It is responsible for drawing of plans, design and geomatrical calculations. Recycling paper cuts energy consumption and pollution. Paper recycling can reduce air pollutants by 75% percent and water... |